Analysis of the availability, effectiveness and equity of deployment of resources in the health system response to COVID-19 in Nigeria.

BACKGROUND: Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) exposed weaknesses in the health systems of countries such as Nigeria, which affected the effectiveness of the health system response to the pandemic. This paper provides new knowledge on the level of the availability, effectiveness and equity of resources in response to COVID-19 in Nigeria. This is valuable information for improving the delivery of countermeasures against future pandemics. METHODS: The study was conducted at the federal level and in two states in Nigeria. The states were Lagos in the southwest and Enugu in the southeast. In-depth interviews were undertaken with 34 key informants. NVivo version 12 software was used for coding and thematic analysis. RESULTS: There were inadequate, inequitable and suboptimal resources (human, financial, equipment and materials) for the response. In some of the countermeasures, only people that were employed in the formal sector benefitted from the distribution of welfare materials and financial packages; the informal sector, which constitutes the majority of the poor population in Nigeria, was excluded. CONCLUSIONS: Inequity and suboptimal availability of resources to control COVID-19 led to reduced effectiveness of the health system response to the disease in Nigeria. Such negative factors must be mitigated in future responses to pandemics in the country.

Evaluating a capacity development intervention in health economics among producers and users of evidence in Nigeria: a case study in Getting Research Into Policy and Practice (GRIPP) in Anambra State.

BACKGROUND: The use of research evidence to inform policy and practice cannot be overemphasized especially in low and middle-income countries (LMICs). To promote the use of research evidence in the provision of health services for enhanced effective control of communicable diseases in developing countries, the World Health Organization (WHO) in collaboration with the Health Policy Research Group (HPRG) commissioned a capacity development workshop in health economics among producers and users of research evidence in the healthcare system of Anambra state, south east Nigeria. This study was aimed to evaluate the impact of the workshop training on selected stakeholders on the use of health economics evidence to inform health policy and practice in the state. METHODS: Participants were purposively selected based either as producers and users of evidence at various levels of healthcare decision making in Anambra state, comprising mostly senior managers and executives from the ministry of health, the academic and health institutions in the state. A two-day capacity development workshop was conducted to train the participants on the use of economic evidence to inform health policy and practice. Pre-post test approach and group exercises were used to assess the knowledge and impact of the training exercises on the participants regarding the use of health economics evidence. Analysis was based on the framework of process-output-outcome-impact approach using the pre-post test and scores technique to assess the impact of the training programme. RESULTS: Pretest average scores varied from 39.7% to 60.5% while posttest scores varied from 47.6% to 65.7%, showing big differences in individual scores among participants, between the producers and users of evidence both prior to and after the training. The significant differences between the test scores indicated success in increasing the knowledge of participants on the use of health economics evidence. Results corroborated participants' perceptions that the workshop impacted positively on their ability to apply the knowledge of health economic evidence to inform decision making in their respective practices. CONCLUSION: Findings underscored the need for regular upgrade of stakeholders in the health system for enhanced uptake and sustainability of the programme to achieve the desired goal of getting research into policy and practice in the state applicable to other settings.

Willingness to Pay for a Contributory Social Health Insurance Scheme: A Survey of Rural Residents in Akwa Ibom State, Nigeria.

Background: Health insurance is seen as a pathway to achieving Universal health coverage in low- and middle-income countries. The Nigeria Government has mandated states to set up social health insurance as a mechanism to offer financial protection to her citizens. However, the design of these schemes has been left to individual states. In preparation for the set-up of a contributory social health insurance scheme in Akwa Ibom State, Nigeria. This study assesses the willingness-to-pay for a social health insurance among rural residents in the state. Methods: The study was conducted in three local government areas in Akwa Ibom State, South south Nigeria. It was a cross-sectional study with multi-stage data collection using a demand questionnaire. Interviews were conducted with 286 household heads who were bread winners. Contingent valuation using iterative bidding with double bounded dichotomous technique was used to elicit the WTP for health insurance. Multiple regression using least square method was used to create a model for predicting WTP. Findings: About 82% of the household heads were willing to pay insurance premiums for their households. The median WTP for insurance premium was 11,142 Naira ($29), 95% CI: 9,599-12,684 Naira ($25-$33) per annum. The respondents were predominantly middle-aged (46.8%), Ibibio men (71.7%) with an average household size of five persons and bread winners who had secondary education (43.0%) and were mainly pentecostals (51.5%). The mean age of respondents was 46.4 ± 14.5 yrs. The two significant predictors of WTP for insurance premium amongst these rural residents were income of breadwinner (accounts for 79%) and size of household (2%). The regression coefficients for predicting WTP for insurance premium are intercept of 2,419, a slope of 0.1763 for Bread winner income and a slope of 741.5 household size, all values in Naira and kobo. Conclusion: Majority of rural residents in Akwa Ibom State were willing to pay for social health insurance. The amount they were willing to pay was significantly determined by the income of the breadwinner of the household and the size of the family. These findings are relevant to designing a contributory social health insurance scheme that is affordable and sustainable in order to ensure universal health coverage for the citizens.

Complications of traditional bonesetting in contemporary fracture care in low- and middle-income countries: A systematic review.

OBJECTIVE: To provide an overview of the evidence on the prevalence and pattern of complications among patients treated by traditional bonesetting presenting for modern orthopaedic services in low- and middle-income countries (LMIC). METHODS: Systematic review following PRISMA guidelines. Articles were identified by searching PubMed, Embase, ScienceDirect, SCOPUS, and Web of Science using the keywords "fracture care", "traditional bonesetters" and "complications". Papers included for review were original articles set in an LMIC that directly reported the prevalence and pattern of musculoskeletal complications of traditional bonesetters' fracture treatment in LMIC settings. RESULTS: A total of 176 papers were screened for eligibility and 15 studies were finally included. Nine were prospective studies, six were retrospective studies. All were hospital-based, observational studies that investigated the outcomes of treatment of fractures by traditional bonesetters published between 1986 and 2018. In total, this review covers 1389 participants with 1470 complications of fracture treatment. CONCLUSION: Traditional bonesetting complications are associated with significant morbidity. However, traditional bonesetters have the potential to contribute positively to primary fracture care when they are trained.

Is bed turnover rate a good metric for hospital scale efficiency? A measure of resource utilization rate for hospitals in Southeast Nigeria.

BACKGROUND: Nigeria health sector, like that of other sub-Saharan African countries, increasingly faces critical resource constraints. Thus, there is need to seek for ways of improving efficient use of scarce health resources. The aim of this study was to determine resource utilization rate of teaching hospitals in Southeast Nigeria as a means of estimating their efficiency. METHODS: The study is a longitudinal cross sectional study. It applied ratio indicators and Pabon Lasso model using data on the number of hospital bed, number of inpatients and total inpatient-days from purposefully selected teaching hospitals in Southeast Nigeria to measure efficiency over a period of 6 years (2011-2011). RESULTS: The hospitals' mean bed occupancy rate was as low as 42.14%, far below standard benchmark of 80-85%. The mean average length of stay was as high as 8.15 days and observed mean bed turnover was 21.27 patients/bed/year. These findings portrayed high level of inefficiency in Nigeria teaching hospitals, which was further illustrated by Pabon Lasso graph, with only 10-20% of the hospital-years located within or near the efficient zone or quadrant. CONCLUSION: The study was able to show that health ratio indicators such as hospital bed turnover rate (BTR) and bed occupancy rate (BOR), as well as patients' average length of stay (ALS) can be used as tools for assessing hospital performance or its efficiency in resource utilization. Thus, in low and middle income countries where medical record keeping may be inadequate or poor, ratio indicators used alone or with Pabon Lasso graph/chart could be an optional metrics for hospital efficiency.

Cost analysis of supplemental immunization activities to deliver measles immunization to children in Anambra state, south-east Nigeria.

BACKGROUND: Measles immunization is critical for reducing the societal burden of the disease, especially among children. However, the costs of the measles supplemental immunization activities, which are the main vaccine deployment strategy, are usually high and financing such immunization activities is a serious challenge in Nigeria. In Nigeria, little or no information exists on the costs of measles supplemental immunization activity for planning and sustenance of immunization programmes. This study aimed to determine the cost per child immunized and cost structure of a follow-up supplemental immunization activity (SIA) for measles immunization to children. METHOD: Data on costs and outputs of SIA were collected from six Local Government area (LGAs) immunization offices in Anambra state, southeast Nigeria. The ingredient approach was used for costing, based on the providers' perspective. The sample results were extrapolated to state estimates using volume weighted mean method. The major indicator considered was cost per child immunized. Two-way sensitivity analysis was used to test the robustness of the results. RESULT: The cost per child immunized through SIA was $1.37 and the cost per child for operational cost only was $0.81. The total cost of the SIA for the sample was $345,069.35 and the operational cost was $204,969.46. The cost of personnel (43.99%) and vaccine (36.22%) contributed the highest percentage to the total cost of SIA. The cost of personnel and transportation took the first (74.6%) and second (7.10%) highest percentages of the operational cost for the sample. The estimated total and operational costs of measles SIA for the state were $1,279,127.84 and $759,795.52 respectively. CONCLUSION: The cost per child immunized with measles containing vaccine through SIA is relatively high in Nigeria. There is a need to review the activities with SIA, so as to ensure that resources are efficiently allocated and used for different activities of the programme.

Impact of socioeconomic status on patient experience on quality of care for ambulatory healthcare services in tertiary hospitals in Southeast Nigeria.

BACKGROUND: To determine how socioeconomic factors, such as level of education and employment status, affect patient experiences on quality of care for ambulatory healthcare services in teaching hospitals in southeast Nigeria. METHODS: The study is of a cross-sectional design and exit poll was used to collect its data. A pre-tested structured questionnaire was administered to clients accessing care in the outpatient departments of three tertiary hospitals in Nigeria. The assessment of patient experiences for quality of care was based on five (5) domains of care: waiting time; environment of the outpatient department; quality of doctor's care; quality of care by nurses/other health workers; and responsiveness of care. In addition, the overall quality of care was assessed. RESULTS: The mean rating of patient experience for quality of care for ambulatory healthcare services (outpatients' care) was 74.31 ± 0.32%. Moderate differences were observed between the hospitals assessed for various levels of patients' care, especially for waiting time, quality of doctors' care and overall quality of care. Employment status was a statistically significant (p ≤ 0.05) determinant of overall patient experience rating for quality of care, while the level of patient's education was an influence on the perception of waiting by the patients and their rating of care from nurses/other healthcare providers (apart from medical doctors). CONCLUSION: The study showed that educational and employment status (measures of socioeconomic status) of patients determined how patients receiving ambulatory (outpatient) healthcare services perceived the quality of care in the hospitals. Hence, in order to ensure equity, there is need to institutionalize patient-centered care, while full consideration is given to the patients' socioeconomic status.

Patients with positive malaria tests not given artemisinin-based combination therapies: a research synthesis describing under-prescription of antimalarial medicines in Africa.

BACKGROUND: There has been a successful push towards parasitological diagnosis of malaria in Africa, mainly with rapid diagnostic tests (mRDTs), which has reduced over-prescribing of artemisinin-based combination therapies (ACT) to malaria test-negative patients. The effect on prescribing for test-positive patients has received much less attention. Malaria infection in endemic Africa is often most dangerous for young children and those in low-transmission settings. This study examined non-prescription of antimalarials for patients with malaria infection demonstrated by positive mRDT results, and in particular these groups who are most vulnerable to poor outcomes if antimalarials are not given. METHODS: Analysis of data from 562,762 patients in 8 studies co-designed as part of the ACT Consortium, conducted 2007-2013 in children and adults, in Cameroon, Ghana, Nigeria, Tanzania, and Uganda, in a variety of public and private health care sector settings, and across a range of malaria endemic zones. RESULTS: Of 106,039 patients with positive mRDT results (median age 6 years), 7426 (7.0%) were not prescribed an ACT antimalarial. The proportion of mRDT-positive patients not prescribed ACT ranged across sites from 1.3 to 37.1%. For patients under age 5 years, 3473/44,539 (7.8%) were not prescribed an ACT, compared with 3833/60,043 (6.4%) of those aged ≥ 5 years. The proportion of < 5-year-olds not prescribed ACT ranged up to 41.8% across sites. The odds of not being prescribed an ACT were 2-32 times higher for patients in settings with lower-transmission intensity (using test positivity as a proxy) compared to areas of higher transmission. mRDT-positive children in low-transmission settings were especially likely not to be prescribed ACT, with proportions untreated up to 70%. Of the 7426 mRDT-positive patients not prescribed an ACT, 4121 (55.5%) were prescribed other, non-recommended non-ACT antimalarial medications, and the remainder (44.5%) were prescribed no antimalarial. CONCLUSIONS: In eight studies of mRDT implementation in five African countries, substantial proportions of patients testing mRDT-positive were not prescribed an ACT antimalarial, and many were not prescribed an antimalarial at all. Patients most vulnerable to serious outcomes, children < 5 years and those in low-transmission settings, were most likely to not be prescribed antimalarials, and young children in low-transmission settings were least likely to be treated for malaria. This major public health risk must be addressed in training and practice. TRIAL REGISTRATION: Reported in individual primary studies.

Achieving financial risk protection through a national Social Health Insurance Programme in Nigeria: Perspectives of enrollees and healthcare providers.

INTRODUCTION: Out-of-pocket (OOP) payment adversely affects universal financial risk protection (UFRP) and the achievement of Universal Health Coverage (UHC). Since the introduction of a Formal Sector Social Health Insurance Programme (FSSHIP) in Nigeria, the extent to which it has provided UFRP is still largely unknown. This study therefore assessed this from the perspectives of both enrollees and healthcare providers. METHODS: The study was undertaken in Enugu state, Nigeria. The subjects were randomly selected primary enrollees and health care providers. An interviewer-administered questionnaire was used for data collection on service utilization under the FSSHIP, as well as out-of-pocket payment of healthcare expenditure. RESULTS: Out of 333 formal sector workers interviewed, 283 (85%) were registered in the FSSHIP and 61.1% of them utilized FSSHIP. Among these, 89.8% of them used OOP to pay for about 95.2% of the healthcare expenditure. From the perspectives of the providers, 97.6%, patients still paid using OOP. CONCLUSION: The FSSHIP is not providing UFRP as expected. This weakens the effectiveness of the FSSHIP to ensure UFRP and ultimately UHC. The NHIS should modify the FSSHIP to provide UFRP and eliminate both the high level of OOP and the proportion of expenditure it covers.

Scaling up Maternal and Child Healthcare Delivery among Mission Hospitals in Southeast Nigeria: An Empirical Application of Data Envelopment Analysis for Setting Benchmarks and Targets.

The health system in many parts of Nigeria has been dysfunctional in several domains including financing, human resources, infrastructure, health management information system and hospital services. In an attempt to scale up Maternal and Child Health (MCH) services and ensure efficiency, Ebonyi State Government in Southeast Nigeria provided funding to mission hospitals across the State as a grant. This study used nonparametric method to assess the effect of this public financing on the efficiency of the mission hospitals. Operational cost and number of hospital beds were used as the input variables, while antenatal registrations, number of immunization doses and hospital deliveries were the output variables. The hospitals were disaggregated into 15 hospital-years. The mean overall technical efficiency of the mission hospitals was 84.05 22.45%. The mean pure technical efficiency was 95.56±6.9% and the scale efficiency was 88.05±22.20%. About 46.67% of all the hospital-years were technically and scale efficient. Although, 55.33% were generally inefficient, only 33.33% of hospital-years exhibited pure technical inefficiency. Low immunization coverage was the major cause of inefficiency. The study showed increased maternal health service output as result of public funding or intervention; however, the mission hospitals could have saved 16% of input resources if they had performed efficiently. It also shows that data envelopment analysis can be used in setting targets/benchmarks for relatively inefficient health facilities, and in monitoring impact of interventions on efficiency of hospitals over-time.

Rural-urban comparison of routine immunization utilization and its determinants in communities in Anambra States, Nigeria.

OBJECTIVES: The study determined the levels of geographic differences in the utilization of routine immunization between households in an urban and a rural community. It also identified and compared the determinants of utilization of routine immunization in the two geographic areas. METHOD: The study was undertaken in two randomly selected communities (one rural and one urban) in Anambra State, Nigeria. Interviewer-administered questionnaires were used to collect information on utilization of immunization services from households. Data were analyzed using descriptive and multiple logistic regression analyses. RESULT: Households in the urban community had a higher level of utilization of routine immunization (95.5%) than those in the rural community (75.3%) and the difference was statistically significant (p < 0.05). It was also found that more rural dwellers (83.3%) received immunization services from public health facilities compared to the urban dwellers (42%; p < 0.05). Health facilities were nearer to households in the urban community than the rural community (p < 0.05). Mean cost of service per visit was higher in the urban community (p < 0.05), but the difference in the mean cost of transportation per visit was not significant (p = 0.125). Regression analysis shows that place of residence was highly significant for utilization of routine immunization services (p < 0.05). CONCLUSION: Urban-rural differences exist in utilization of routine immunization services. Health facilities are more proximal to consumers in the urban community than the rural community, with higher travel costs among rural dwellers. Ensuring that there is a functional primary healthcare center in every ward and provision of routine immunization services in market places on local market days can help to increase utilization and reduce rural-urban differences in utilization of immunization services.

Malaria Knowledge and Treatment Practices in Enugu State, Nigeria: A Qualitative Study.

BACKGROUND: Malaria accounts for 60% of outpatient visits in Nigeria. The aim of the study was to assess the knowledge of malaria and its treatment practices in Enugu state, Nigeria. METHODS: Qualitative data was collected through the use of focus group discussions (FGDs), from six villages three each from urban and rural areas of Enugu state, Nigeria. A total of 18 FGDs involving 189 participants were conducted and data on place of treatment for malaria and drug of choice for malaria treatment were collected. RESULTS: Most discussants had a good knowledge of the signs and symptoms of malaria. They reported late for treatment when they had symptoms suggestive of malaria. Treatment timing was affected by financial capability and perceived severity of disease. There was preference for patent medicine dealers (PMDs) and pharmacies for malaria treatment. The reasons included drug affordability, obtaining preferred drug, short waiting time and polite treatment from the providers. Treatment in most cases was without proper malaria diagnosis. Cost was an important factor in determining the drug of choice for malaria treatment. This could explain why people were not aware of the use of artemisininbased combination therapy while preferring mono-therapies and herbal drugs. Public hospitals were considered as good sources of treatment for malaria although they remain the last resort when treatment from these drug outlets failed. CONCLUSION: The community members preferred PMDs and pharmacies for malaria treatment. Unfortunately, these drug outlets do not encourage the use of artemisinin combination therapy (ACT). This makes it necessary that pharmacists and PMDs are trained on management of malaria. Also, improving the knowledge of the public on the need for malaria diagnosis before treatment and use of artemisinin-based combination therapy will improve the control of malaria. The populace should be instructed to seek treatment early while also discouraging the use of herbal drugs for malaria treatment. There is also the need to improve service delivery at public health facilities.

Implementation of free maternal and child healthcare policies: assessment of influence of context and institutional capacity of health facilities in South-east Nigeria.

BACKGROUND: Studies examining how the capacity of health facilities affect implementation of free healthcare policies in low and middle-income countries are limited. OBJECTIVE: This study describes how the context and institutional capacity of health facilities influenced implementation of the free maternal and child health programme (FMCHP) in Enugu state, South-east Nigeria. METHODS: We conducted a qualitative case study at the state level and in two health districts (Isi-Uzo and Enugu Metropolis) in Enugu State. Data were collected through document review and semi-structured, in-depth interviews with policymakers (n = 16), healthcare providers (n = 16) and health facility committee leaders (n = 12) guided by an existing capacity framework and analysed using a thematic framework approach. RESULTS: The findings reveal that active health facility committees, changes in provider payment process, supportive supervision, drug revolving fund, availability of medical equipment, electronic data transmission and staff sanction system enhanced the capacity of health facilities to offer free healthcare. However, ineffective decentralisation, irregular supervision and weak citizen participation limited this capacity. Uncertain provider payment, evidence of tax payment policy and a co-existing fee-exempt scheme constrained health facilities in following the FMCHP guidelines. Poor recording and reporting skills and lack of support from district officials constrained providers' adherence to claims' submission timeline. Poor funding, weak drug supply system, inadequate infrastructure and lack of participatory decision-making constrained delivery of free healthcare. Insufficient trained workforce, mission-inconsistent postings and transfers, and weak staff disciplinary system limited the human resource capacity. CONCLUSIONS: Effectiveness of FMCHP at the health facility level depends on the extent of decentralisation, citizen participation, concurrent and conflictive policies, timely payment of providers, organisation of service delivery and human resources practices. Attention to these contextual and institutional factors will enhance responsiveness of health facilities, sustainability of free healthcare policies and progress towards universal health coverage.

The community is just a small circle: citizen participation in the free maternal and child healthcare programme of Enugu State, Nigeria.

BACKGROUND: There is a gap in knowledge about how citizen participation impacts governance of free healthcare policies for universal health coverage in low- and middle-income countries. OBJECTIVE: This study provides evidence about how social accountability initiatives influenced revenue generation, pooling and fund management, purchasing and capacity of health facilities implementing the free maternal and child healthcare programme (FMCHP) in Enugu State, Nigeria. METHODS: The study adopted a descriptive, qualitative case-study design to explore how social accountability influenced implementation of the FMCHP at the state level and in two health districts (Isi-Uzo and Enugu Metropolis) in Enugu State. Data were collected from policymakers (n = 16), providers (n = 16) and health facility committee leaders (n = 12) through in-depth interviews. We also conducted focus-group discussions (n = 4) with 42 service users and document review. Data were analysed using thematic analysis. RESULTS: It was found that health facility committees (HFCs) have not been involved in the generation of funds, fund management and tracking of spending in FMCHP. The HFCs did not also seem to have increased transparency of benefits and payment of providers. The HFCs emerged as the dominant social accountability initiative in FMCHP but lacked power in the governance of free health services. The HFCs were constrained by weak legal framework, ineffectual FMCHP committees at the state and district levels, restricted financial information disclosure, distrustful relationships with policymakers and providers, weak patient complaint system and low use of service charter. CONCLUSION: The HFCs have not played a significant role in health financing and service provision in FMCHP. The gaps in HFCs' participation in health financing functions and service delivery need to be considered in the design and implementation of free maternal and child healthcare policies that aim to achieve universal health coverage.

The Impact of Introducing Malaria Rapid Diagnostic Tests on Fever Case Management: A Synthesis of Ten Studies from the ACT Consortium.

Since 2010, the World Health Organization has been recommending that all suspected cases of malaria be confirmed with parasite-based diagnosis before treatment. These guidelines represent a paradigm shift away from presumptive antimalarial treatment of fever. Malaria rapid diagnostic tests (mRDTs) are central to implementing this policy, intended to target artemisinin-based combination therapies (ACT) to patients with confirmed malaria and to improve management of patients with nonmalarial fevers. The ACT Consortium conducted ten linked studies, eight in sub-Saharan Africa and two in Afghanistan, to evaluate the impact of mRDT introduction on case management across settings that vary in malaria endemicity and healthcare provider type. This synthesis includes 562,368 outpatient encounters (study size range 2,400-432,513). mRDTs were associated with significantly lower ACT prescription (range 8-69% versus 20-100%). Prescribing did not always adhere to malaria test results; in several settings, ACTs were prescribed to more than 30% of test-negative patients or to fewer than 80% of test-positive patients. Either an antimalarial or an antibiotic was prescribed for more than 75% of patients across most settings; lower antimalarial prescription for malaria test-negative patients was partly offset by higher antibiotic prescription. Symptomatic management with antipyretics alone was prescribed for fewer than 25% of patients across all scenarios. In community health worker and private retailer settings, mRDTs increased referral of patients to other providers. This synthesis provides an overview of shifts in case management that may be expected with mRDT introduction and highlights areas of focus to improve design and implementation of future case management programs.

Patients' willingness to pay for the treatment of tuberculosis in Nigeria: exploring own use and altruism.

BACKGROUND: Although, current treatment services for Tuberculosis (TB) in Nigeria are provided free of charge in public facilities, the benefits (value) that patients attach to such service is not known. In addition, the prices that could be charged for treatment in case government and its partners withdraw from the provision of free services or inclusion of the services in health insurance plans are not known. Hence, there is a need to elicit the maximum amounts that patients are willing to pay for TB treatment services, both for themselves and for the very poor patients that may not be able to pay if some user fees are introduced (altruistic willingness to pay). METHODS: A pretested interviewer-administered questionnaire was used to elicit the maximum willingness to pay (WTP) for TB treatment services from TB patients in a tertiary hospital in southeast Nigeria. WTP was elicited using the bidding game question format after a scenario was presented to the respondents. Data was analysed using tabulations. Tobit regression models were used to examine the validity of the elicited WTP for own use and altruistic WTP. RESULTS: The results show that those aged 30 years and below constituted more than two-fifth (43.2%) of the respondents. More than half of the respondents (52.8%) were not employed. 100 (80.0%) of the respondents were willing to pay for their own use of TB treatment services while 78(62.4%) of the respondents were willing to make altruistic contributions so that the very poor could benefit from the TB services. A Tobit regression analysis of maximum WTP for TB for own use shows that respondents were willing to pay maximum amounts at different statistically significant levels. The results equally show that altruistic WTP was positively and statistically significantly related to the employment status, distance from UNTH and global seriousness of TB. CONCLUSIONS: Most patients positively valued the provision of free TB services and were willing to pay for TB treatment for own use. The better-off ones were also willing to make altruistic contributions. Free provision of TB treatment services is potentially worthwhile, but there is potential scope for continuation of universal provision of TB treatment services, even if the government and donors scale down their financing of the services.

Impact of introduction of rapid diagnostic tests for malaria on antibiotic prescribing: analysis of observational and randomised studies in public and private healthcare settings.

Objectives To examine the impact of use of rapid diagnostic tests for malaria on prescribing of antimicrobials, specifically antibiotics, for acute febrile illness in Africa and Asia.Design Analysisof nine preselected linked and codesigned observational and randomised studies (eight cluster or individually randomised trials and one observational study).Setting Public and private healthcare settings, 2007-13, in Afghanistan, Cameroon, Ghana, Nigeria, Tanzania, and Uganda.Participants 522 480 children and adults with acute febrile illness.Interventions Rapid diagnostic tests for malaria.Main outcome measures Proportions of patients for whom an antibiotic was prescribed in trial groups who had undergone rapid diagnostic testing compared with controls and in patients with negative test results compared with patients with positive results. A secondary aim compared classes of antibiotics prescribed in different settings.Results Antibiotics were prescribed to 127 052/238 797 (53%) patients in control groups and 167 714/283 683 (59%) patients in intervention groups. Antibiotics were prescribed to 40% (35 505/89 719) of patients with a positive test result for malaria and to 69% (39 400/57 080) of those with a negative result. All but one study showed a trend toward more antibiotic prescribing in groups who underwent rapid diagnostic tests. Random effects meta-analysis of the trials showed that the overall risk of antibiotic prescription was 21% higher (95% confidence interval 7% to 36%) in intervention settings. In most intervention settings, patients with negative test results received more antibiotic prescriptions than patients with positive results for all the most commonly used classes: penicillins, trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole (one exception), tetracyclines, and metronidazole.Conclusions Introduction of rapid diagnostic tests for malaria to reduce unnecessary use of antimalarials-a beneficial public health outcome-could drive up untargeted use of antibiotics. That 69% of patients were prescribed antibiotics when test results were negative probably represents overprescription.This included antibiotics from several classes, including those like metronidazole that are seldom appropriate for febrile illness, across varied clinical, health system, and epidemiological settings. It is often assumed that better disease specific diagnostics will reduce antimicrobial overuse, but they might simply shift it from one antimicrobial class to another. Current global implementation of malaria testing might increase untargeted antibiotic use and must be examined.

Investigating socio-economic inequity in access to and expenditures on routine immunization services in Anambra state.

BACKGROUND: Addressing existing inequities in the utilization of priority health services such as routine immunization is a current public health priority. Increasing access to routine immunization from the current low levels amongst all socio-economic status groups in Nigeria is challenging. However, little is known on the level of SES inequity in utilization of routine immunization services and such information which will inform the development of strategies for ensuring equitable provision of routine immunization services in the country. The study was a cross sectional household survey, which was undertaken in two randomly selected communities in Anambra State, southeast Nigeria. A pre-tested interviewer administered questionnaire was used to collect data on levels of access to RI by children under-2 years from randomly selected households. In each household, data was collected from the primary care givers or their representative (in their absence). The relationship between access to routine immunization and socio-economic status of households and other key variables was explored in data analysis. RESULT: Households from high socio-economic status (well-off) groups utilized routine immunization services more than those that belong to low socio-economic status (poor) groups (X2 = 9.97, p < 0.002). It was found that higher percentage of low socio-economic status households compared to the high socio-economic status households received routine immunization services at public health facilities. Households that belong to low socio-economic status groups had to travel longer distance to get to health facilities consequently incurring some transportation cost. The mean expenditures on service charge for routine immunization services (mostly informal payments) and transportation were US$1.84 and US$1.27 respectively. Logistic regression showed that access to routine immunization was positively related to socio-economic status and negatively related to distant of a household to a health facility. CONCLUSION: Ability to pay affects access to services, even when such services are free at point of consumption with lower socio-economic status groups having less access to services and also having other constraints such as transportation. Hence, innovative provision methods that will bring routine immunization services closer to the people and eliminate all formal and informal user fees for routine immunization will help to increase and improve equitable coverage with routine immunization services.

Determining the disability adjusted life years lost to childhood and adolescence epilepsy in southeast Nigeria: An exploratory study.

OBJECTIVES: Disease burden has always been based on associated mortality. An accurate measurement of the burden of epilepsy should rely on both morbidity and mortality. This will close any existing gap in knowledge and provide useful information to aid evidence-based decision-making. In this study, burden of epilepsy was estimated, using disability-adjusted-life-years (DALYs), using disability weights for epilepsy that were part of the Global Burden of Disease 2010 work. METHODS: The study was conducted at the University of Nigeria Teaching Hospital, Enugu. Interviewer-administered questionnaire was used to collect information from patients with epilepsy who presented to neurology clinic. The prevalence of epilepsy, and case-fatality were obtained from previous publications. The DALYs were estimated by adding together the years lost to disability (YLDs) and years lost to life (YLLs) to epilepsy (DALYs=YLD+YLL). DALYs were dis-aggregated by age group and by whether or not epilepsy was treated. RESULTS: A total of 134 children with epilepsy-interviews were conducted. Some 56% and 44% of the subjects had primary and secondary epilepsy, respectively. The childhood epilepsy caused 1.63 YLLs per 1000 population, 0.45 YLDs per 1000 population and 2.08 DALY per 1000 population. The highest burden was in children within the age group of 5-14 years at 2.18 DALY per 1000 people. The YLDs was higher (0.63/1000 population) among the untreated group, compared with the YLDs (0.27/1000 population) among the treated group. The YLLs lost for children with secondary epilepsy (2.23/1000 population) was higher than primary epilepsy YLLs of 1.07/1000 population. SIGNIFICANCE: The DALYs due to childhood epilepsy was high. The YLDs was high among children with epilepsy who were not on treatment. The YLLs were found to be the same in all children with epilepsy, irrespective of their treatment status. This imperatively necessitates the de-emphasis on just mortality as an indicator of the burden of childhood epilepsy but rather a holistic approach should be adopted in considering both the mortality and disability in monitoring the outcome of health interventions.

Examining geographic and socio-economic differences in outpatient and inpatient consumer expenditures for treating HIV/AIDS in Nigeria.

INTRODUCTION: The expenditures on treatment of HIV/AIDS to households were examined to quantify the magnitude of the economic burden of HIV/AIDS to different population groups in Nigeria. The information will also provide a basis for increased action towards a reduction of the economic burden on many households when accessing antiretroviral therapy (ART). METHODS: A household survey was administered in three states, Adamawa, Akwa Ibom and Anambra, from the South-East, North-East and South-South zones of Nigeria, respectively. A pretested interviewer-administered questionnaire was used to collect data from a minimum sample of 1200 people living with HIV/AIDS (PLHIV). Data were collected on the medical and non-medical expenditures that patients incurred to treat HIV/AIDS for their last treatment episode within three months of the interview date. The expenditures were for outpatient visits (OPV) and inpatient stays (IPS). The incidence of catastrophic health expenditure (CHE) on ART treatment services was computed for OPV and IPS. Data were disaggregated by socio-economic status (SES) and geographic location of the households. RESULTS: The average OPV expenditures incurred by patients per OPV for HIV/AIDS treatment was US$6.1 with variations across SES and urban-rural residence. More than 95% of the surveyed households spent money on transportation to a treatment facility and over 70% spent money on food for OPV. For medical expenditures, the urbanites paid more than rural dwellers. Many patients incurred CHE during outpatient and inpatient visits. Compared to urban dwellers, rural dwellers incurred more CHE for outpatient (p=0.02) and inpatient visits (p=0.002). CONCLUSIONS: Treatment expenditures were quite high, inequitable and catastrophic in some instances, hence further jeopardizing the welfare of the households and the PLHIV. Strategically locating fully functional treatment centres to make them more accessible to PLHIV will largely reduce expenditures for travel and the need for food during visits. Additionally, financial risk-protection mechanisms such as treatment vouchers, reimbursement and health insurance that will significantly reduce the expenditures borne by PLHIV and their households in seeking ART should be implemented.